Since achieving independence, Nigeria has grappled with enduring difficulties in the housing sector. The demand for housing consistently exceeds the available supply, causing prices to soar to levels that are beyond the financial reach of many citizens, including those with moderate incomes that exceed the minimum wage. JOSEPHINE OGUNDEJI writes on how rising prices of building materials, erosion of consumers’ purchasing power by inflation, foreign exchange crisis have priced the middle class out of the housing market
Sitting distressed, Gbenga Ajaegbe, a civil engineer, weathered by the daily demands of his profession, found himself in reflective solitude on his balcony.
The worn-out tiles beneath his feet barely echoed the aspirations that stirred within him. Situated in the heart of Igando, Lagos, in the modest community of Onilu, his 3-bedroom rented apartment was a silent witness to the struggles and dreams of a middle-income family.
Within the tranquil embrace of the morning, the middle-income earner silently grappled with the persistent weight of financial strain. The burdensome yoke of monthly, yearly payments seemed to coincide relentlessly with the demands of his children’s education, creating a relentless cycle of fiscal pressure.
Amidst this tumult, the notion of owning a home began to take root in Ajaegbe’s thoughts. However, the prospect of acquiring property in Lagos State, the economic hub of West Africa, loomed as a challenging endeavour.
“With the high inflation now plaguing the economy, the prices of properties have gone up, I don’t even know how I want to start saving or investing for a property worth millions to billions of naira, for a middle-income earner like me. How much am I earning? I feel so overwhelmed,” he told our correspondent who visited his abode.
Amid the widespread poverty that has thwarted the aspirations of millions of Nigerians to secure their property and obtain decent accommodation, compounded by the consistent inability of the government to address this pressing issue, Ajaegbe and countless other income earners have reluctantly sought a semblance of comfort in rented properties.
Middle class agonises
Regretting his decisions, an architect, Seyi Amusan, conveyed to The PUNCH that the money he was supposed to garner for properties years ago was squandered, upon retracing his steps, he is finding it difficult to acquire a property with the increase in prices.
He said, “In 2014 I wanted to purchase a property in the Shimawa area of Ogun State, one plot, for N2m, but it has increased to N7m – N8m for half a plot.”
Likewise, a financial analyst, Ebuka Umeanor, said in the absence of a salary increase, middle-income earners have to go to undeveloped areas to purchase properties.
He said, “The fear of going to those kinds of areas was the longevity in development. My friends and I got an opportunity to share a property worth N600,000 on a plot amount of N150,000, in 2020, till today I regret not making that investment, I guess I was not interested in land investment at that time, but now, it is a luxury.”
“I have been on the lookout for a rental house in Lagos within the budget of N500,000. Surprisingly, real estate agents are quoting prices ranging from N800,000 to N1 million for a 2-bedroom apartment. Even when considering downsizing to a one-bedroom or a room and parlour self-contained, the costs remain unreasonably high.
“Now that I work on the Island, I find myself having to move between family members’ residences on the island to navigate the traffic and manage my schedule. This has proven to be highly inconvenient, especially as a middle-income earner and an adult with plans of settling down soon,” Adedamola Ademuyiwa, a data analyst, retorted.
Consequently, middle-income earners like Ademuyiwa are compelled to navigate through family members’ residences to avoid the challenges posed by expensive rentals and traffic congestion. This situation reflects the compromise and inconvenience that middle-income individuals endure in the pursuit of balancing their financial limitations with housing needs.
In contrast, a legal practitioner, Adegoke Adedoyin, said he was lucky enough to be enlightened about real estate investment. Consequently, when the chance arose, he capitalised on it and managed to secure a piece of land in the Sangotedo area of Lagos State in 2010 at a cost-effective rate.
Adedoyin said, “A friend and I partitioned a plot of land acquired from our landlord in 2010, while the land was initially valued at N3.5m, its current appraisal in 2023 stands at N20m.”
Housing deficit
The housing deficit challenge in Nigeria is not a recent development; it has steadily escalated over the years. In 1991, the housing deficit was 7 million units, a number that increased to 12 million in 2007, 14 million in 2010, and eventually surged to 28 million in 2022 till date, as there is also a problem of accurate housing data in the country.
Importantly, the accuracy of housing data in the country poses an additional complication to understanding the full extent of the issue.
With an estimated housing shortfall of 28 million units in 2023 by the International Human Rights Commission and a projected population of 223.8 million this year, as per United Nations figures, the demand for affordable housing is more pressing than ever.
According to the Federal Mortgage Bank of Nigeria, bridging this gap requires a substantial investment of approximately N21trn, a figure that underscores the magnitude of the issue.
However, the existing housing delivery system paints a bleak picture, averaging a mere two dwelling units per 1,000 people far below the United Nations’ recommended standard of 10 units per thousand people. This shortfall is particularly significant for middle-income earners, who often lack the financial capacity to navigate the real estate market effectively.
The annual production of housing units remains alarmingly low, falling below 100,000 units, and the rate of home ownership is reported to be less than 50 per cent, which highlights the urgency of addressing the financial challenges faced by middle-income individuals striving to secure suitable housing in Nigeria.
Now, if those in the middle-income bracket face difficulties in homeownership, what then is the fate of low-income earners?
The escalating costs of land and construction materials, driven by inflation and fluctuations in foreign exchange rates, contribute to the overall housing affordability crisis.
At present, the housing industry in the nation grapples with unresolved tenure arrangements, elevated material costs, insufficient access to quality infrastructure, and a history of building collapse with more than 553 cases over the past 49 years. Other challenges include scarcity of affordable mortgage options, inadequate housing finance structures, stringent loan conditions with high interest rates from banks, delays in processing legal documents, and ineffective housing policies.
The Association of Housing Corporation of Nigeria’s President, Dr Victor Onukwugha, said the nation needs pragmatic approaches and appropriate strategies to tackle the housing deficit and affordable mass housing production to utilise housing as a veritable tool for economic recovery, thereby empowering the people to reduce unemployment in the society.
He said, “We can only achieve this onerous task through renewed government’s commitment to social housing. One such incentive is a specially crafted housing finance backed and supported by appropriate laws that will regulate the process both on the supply and demand sides at a single-digit interest rate. The use of local building materials should be deliberately encouraged and promoted to arouse acceptability by the general public, who have developed apathy for its use. The federal and state Ministries of Housing should concentrate on providing the enabling environment and supervision for the housing agencies to fulfil statutory mandates.
“With the rapid population growth in the country lies an opportunity for rising demand that can be converted to gain by the government if properly activated and harmonised. Until a deliberate attempt is made to address housing challenges of low- and medium-income groups, the housing deficit gap will continue to widen.”
Despite the minimum wage standing at N30,000, individuals with low incomes encounter challenges in acquiring properties. The situation becomes even more daunting for middle-income earners who exceed the minimum wage and still struggle to purchase properties in upscale areas.
Government interventions
The Federal government under the erstwhile president, Muhammadu Buhari’s regime was able to provide an estimated 8,938 housing units across 35 states and the Federal Capital Territory.
Babatunde Fashola, minister of works and housing, disclosed this in Abuja while presenting the scorecard of his stewardship, adding that the administration also built 9,290km of roads nationwide.
“When this administration came into being the budgetary allocation for the whole country was N18 billion but within the first year of office, the President was able to put this to N224 billion, today we have 13, 000 roads under construction. We have created 383,431 jobs and constructed 9,290.34 kilometres of roads, linear metres of lane marking 2,270,319 and road signs installed 254,690.
“What this is doing in effect is that journey times are being reduced, improving human conditions and promoting prosperity. On housing, we have 46 sites in 35 states with 6,068 housing units and 2,870 housing units in the FCT.”
Fashola added that the ministry issued 1,262 building contracts, while 6,685 Certificates of Occupancy were signed from 2015 to March 2023.
To bridge the housing gap, the Federal Government under President Bola Tinubu has announced that it will provide 5.5 million housing units over ten years in the 36 federation states and the Federal Capital Territory.
The Minister of Housing and Urban Development, Ahmed Dangiwa, made this known during the maiden meeting with the Federal Controllers of Housing from the 36 states of the federation and the Federal Capital Territory in Abuja recently.
Dangiwa said the Federal Government intends to achieve this ambitious goal by using the existing instruments of the Federal Ministry of Housing and Urban Development, as well as leveraging collaborations and Public-Private Partnership arrangements and the Renewed Hope Cities project.
According to the minister, the first phase of the Renewed Hope Cities project would provide 40,000 units across the federation and the FCT, to bridge the housing gap.
As part of efforts to leverage private sector collaboration in closing the housing deficit of the nation, the Ministry of Housing and Urban Development recently signed a Memorandum of Understanding with a consortium to build 100,000 affordable housing units across Nigeria.
With the multifaceted approach undertaken by the government, the question is whether these efforts will finally translate into a concrete opportunity for middle-income earners to acquire their own homes. The strategic initiatives and commitments raise expectations, but the ultimate test lies in whether they can truly bridge the gap and make homeownership a reality for the middle-income segment of the population.
Inflation
The National Bureau of Statistics reported a notable surge in Nigeria’s headline inflation rate, climbing from 21.82 per cent in January 2023 to 27.33 per cent by October. This rise has had a substantial impact, particularly on the costs associated with building materials, housing, and rental prices.
In the third quarter of 2023, the nation’s Gross Domestic Product experienced a year-on-year growth of 2.54 per cent, surpassing the 2.25 per cent recorded in the same period of 2022 and the 2.51 per cent growth seen in the second quarter of 2023.
The driving force behind the GDP performance in Q3 2023 was primarily the services sector, which exhibited a growth of 3.99 per cent, making a significant contribution of 52.70 per cent to the overall GDP.
Real estate services accounted for 4.46 per cent of the nominal GDP in the first quarter of 2023, a slight decrease from the 4.92 per cent observed in the same period of 2022 and the 5.62 per cent in the fourth quarter of 2022. The real estate sector contributed 5.58 per cent to the GDP, while the construction sector contributed 3.36 per cent in the third quarter of 2023.
The sector’s performance left industry participants dissatisfied, following a year marked by elevated prices, limited inventory, and challenges in the supply chain.
The President, Real Estate Developers Association of Nigeria, Dr Aliyu Wamakko, said economic policies by the new government affected professional practice and real estate businesses. He added that the negative impact of the economic policies was phenomenal.
“When there is a change in government policy, it is the private sector that suffers because the policy may not tally with the activities of the private sector. There was a removal of fuel subsidies, a cash squeeze during the election and a removal of the fuel subsidy after the election, which affected the real estate industry. The cash situation incapacitated many Nigerians from buying homes,” Wamakko noted.
The REDAN president asserted that indices such as inadequate finance for projects, high-interest rates, inflation, and other economic volatility made the sector underperform this year.
In an exclusive interview with The PUNCH, the President of the Nigerian Institute of Architects, Mobolaji Adeniyi, said the surge in housing prices in Nigeria had presented formidable obstacles for the aspiring middle class, impeding their ability to secure affordable and decent housing.
She said, “Various factors contribute to this predicament, beginning with economic challenges. The nation grapples with double-digit inflation, which has a cascading effect on the cost of living, including housing expenses. Economic instability, stemming from unpredictable policies and uncertainties, dissuades significant investors from engaging in long-term property investments.”
Adeniyi noted that income disparities within the middle class were exacerbating the situation, with a growing income inequality rendering a significant portion of the middle-income earners unable to participate in the housing market.
She declared, “Addressing these challenges necessitates a comprehensive, multifaceted approach involving government interventions, infrastructure development, policy reforms, and a concerted effort to promote affordable housing solutions. Sustainable solutions should seek to balance the financial capacity of the middle class with the imperative for accelerated housing development that aligns with their means.”
Surge in building materials
With a notable escalation from N200,000 per ton in 2021 to N470,000 per ton in 2023, the availability of iron rods, commonly referred to as reinforcement, has emerged as a major issue within the Nigerian building materials market.
It is the same case with cement, a critical component in construction, as its price has climbed from N2,600 in 2021 to N5,900 in 2023, resulting in a notable price difference of N2,900 over 24 months.
The exchange rate in Nigeria has been fluctuating between N730 and N755 per US dollar over the last six months. This is particularly troubling given that more than 70 per cent of building materials in the country are imported. Previously, the rate even surpassed N800 to one US dollar, raising significant concerns about the economic challenges faced by the nation.
Also, the cost of logistics has had a substantial impact on the overall cost of building materials. The situation has been further exacerbated by the petrol subsidy removal, leading to a dramatic increase of over 200 per cent in petrol prices. In some areas, this surge is even more pronounced, with prices skyrocketing from N200 per litre to N700 per litre.
A recent survey conducted by BuyletLive, an online property research platform, sheds light on the considerable impact of various factors on building material prices. Although not as severely affected as cement and iron rods, other materials have seen significant increases.
For instance, the cost of granite has undergone a significant escalation, rising from N170,000 to N320,000 for 20 tons between 2021 and 2023, representing a substantial increase of N150,000. The current rate for 20 tons of sharp sand is N135,000, as opposed to its previous cost of N55,000, indicating an N80,000 rise for the same quantity over the two years. The cost of 9” blocks has risen from N220.00 to N400.00 per unit since 2021, indicating a N180.00 per unit increase.
The upward trend in prices also affects other materials, including aluminium per roofing sheet, which has climbed from N1,800 in 2021 to N5,500 in 2023. This represents a notable increase of N3,700 over the two years. Similarly, 60×60 tiles, priced at N4,000 per carton in 2021, now cost N11,000 per carton, signifying a N7,000 per carton increase. The cost of a 20-litre paint drum has surged from N10,500 in 2021 to N25,000 in 2023, reflecting a substantial price hike of N14,000 within 24 months. Similarly, a single length of 2”x 9” hardwood timber now commands a price of N1,600, marking a significant increase from its 2021 value of N900, representing a N700 uptick.
This surge in prices is accompanied by the removal of the oil subsidy, resulting in heightened petrol prices and increased transport fares. This ongoing trend is further exacerbating the costs associated with building materials.
Consequently, there is a tangible decline in housing delivery, leading to a spike in property acquisition costs and rental rates. This, in turn, is impacting the ability of middle-income earners to own a home. The repercussions of these economic shifts are already being felt in the real estate sector, influencing the dynamics of property ownership and rentals.
Middle class priced out
In Nigeria, the median income of a typical working-class individual varies significantly, reflecting the diverse economic landscape of the country. The median income for the working class ranged from around N50,000 to N150,000 per month, depending on the sector and geographical location, hence equating between N600,000 and N1,800,000 per annum.
Moving into the high middle class, individuals in this bracket often experience a notable increase in annual income, ranging from N2m to N20m or more. Every month, this translates to incomes ranging from N200,000 to N1m or beyond, contingent on factors like occupation, industry, and geographical location.
A four-terraced apartment in the Omole Phase 1 area of Lagos State is priced at approximately N250m, with rental rates reaching as high as N3 m in prime locations. Similarly, a one-and-a-half plot of land that was N150m five years ago in the Surulere area of Lagos State is currently up for sale at N350m.
A housing agent based in Ife, Osun State, Ekeshi Emmanuel, asserted that in the South West region, there has been a remarkable transformation in the real estate landscape, particularly in Ife, with a significant upswing in the availability of properties for both rent and sale from 2022 to 2023.
He said, “Last year, property values in Ife were diverse, reflecting the varying characteristics of different areas. Parakin, for instance, ranged from N6M to N7m, while Modomo and Damico saw prices in the range of N2m to N2.5m. Fasina and Eleweran were priced between N700,000 and N1m, and Ondo Road and Opa area had values ranging from 100, 000 to N250,000.
“However, in a year, the real estate market has experienced a notable shift. In 2023, the cost of acquiring properties will see a substantial increase. Parakin now commands prices between N8m and N10m, signaling a significant surge in demand or perceived value. Similarly, Modomo and Damico have witnessed a substantial uptick, with prices soaring to the range of N4m to N7m. Fasina and Eleweran have followed suit, with property values now standing between N1 and N2.5m. Even in more affordable areas like Ondo Road and Opa Area, there has been an increase, with prices now ranging from 250,000 to 500,000 naira.
“This shift in property values suggests a dynamic and evolving real estate market in the South West region. The drastic increase in prices from 2022 to 2023 may be influenced by various factors such as growing demand, improvements in infrastructure, or shifts in economic conditions. The rise in property prices underscores the changing dynamics of the Ife real estate market, emphasising the need for prospective buyers and investors to stay informed about these fluctuations.”
“The value of a hectare of land in Ogun State has increased from N18m six years ago to N36m, marking a two-fold rise in price,” another housing agent, Olawale Akapo, told our correspondent.
Looking at the eastern part of the country, particularly the state capitals, an eastern-based realtor, Charles Chimezie, said the prices of properties in the east in 2017, depending on the location were way more available.
He said, “Most of the properties in the eastern capital in 2017 were affordable, you get properties within the range of N700,000 to N1m, but right from 2021, the prices of properties scaled up to N2.5m to N8m, sold-off prices were around N10m at in 2023. The properties sold for N10m are now valued at N20m. Hence, in the last five years, you could get properties in the hundreds of thousands compared to now because people are migrating to the East as the state governments are improving on infrastructure which is influencing the surge in property prices at this time.
“People who are taking advantage of property in the east are those who want to pay in instalments because of the situation of the economy. However, it depends on the individual involved.”
Findings by The PUNCH revealed that in the north-central, in places like Ilorin and Abuja, properties can be gotten within the range of N700,000 to 6m, though before they could be gotten from N150,000 to N300,000.
An Abuja-based resident, Adedapo Adewuyi, told The PUNCH that the prices of land in the north-central will be determined by the location and size needed.
He said, “For instance, 500 square metres, depending on the location in areas like Appo and Katampe, 5 years ago, landed properties there were between N8m to N10m, but now it goes for nothing less than N20m. However, it is difficult getting lands in the high brow areas like Wuse 2 and Maitama.”
The middle class in Nigeria has faced a multitude of challenges that have gradually priced them out of their traditional socio-economic status. One significant factor contributing to this phenomenon is the country’s persistent economic instability. Nigeria has experienced fluctuating GDP growth, high inflation rates, and currency depreciation, all of which have eroded the purchasing power of the middle class. The rising cost of living, coupled with limited income growth, has made it increasingly difficult for middle-class families to afford necessities like a suitable roof over their heads.
Many middle-class individuals find themselves either self-employed or working in positions that do not match their qualifications and aspirations. This not only affects their income levels but also diminishes the prospects for upward mobility. The job market’s inability to absorb the growing number of skilled professionals exacerbates the financial strain on the middle class, pushing them toward a precarious economic position.
The middle class, caught between rising housing costs and relatively stagnant incomes, struggles to access affordable and decent accommodation. This has forced some to live in substandard conditions or incur heavy debts to secure housing, further contributing to their financial misery.
In addition, the cost of education has skyrocketed, limiting access to quality schooling for many middle-class families. Private schools, which are often perceived as providing better education, come with exorbitant fees, placing a considerable burden on parents striving to ensure a good education for their children, let alone own properties.
In essence, the absence of robust social safety nets worsens the impact of economic shocks on the middle class, leaving them more susceptible to financial setbacks and pushing them toward the brink of poverty.
Elusiveness of mortgage
The difficulty in mortgage repayment further compounds the challenges faced by the middle class. The combination of stringent eligibility criteria, high interest rates, and limited financial literacy creates barriers that hinder middle-class individuals from realising homeownership aspirations.
This adds to the overall financial burden, making it even more difficult for the middle class to secure stable and sustainable economic futures through real estate.
Speaking to our correspondent, the Company Secretary/Group Legal Head of Living Trust Mortgage Bank, Timothy Gbadeyan, said how long to repay a mortgage loan was not the problem, but if the mortgage banks were willing to give out mortgage loans for a longer period.
He said, “The issue is, are mortgage banks liquid enough to want to give out long-term mortgages? When they give long-term mortgages it extends mortgage inclusion, it lowers the threshold for middle-income earners to be able to come in. If I am giving a person N50m and I want the money back in two years, such a person would be stressed as compared to when I want the person to pay up in 20-25 years.
“Some of the problem in this regard starts from the equity contribution required of the middle-income class; no mortgage bank would give out 100 per cent finance. For instance, if you want to buy a property of N50m, the implication is that the mortgage bank may want you to contribute N10m which is 20 per cent as equity contribution, and then the mortgage bank would give 80 per cent as its counterpart funding which is the mortgage loan. How many middle-income earners have that money stressed up, and can put it down for accessing a mortgage?
“In addition, the National Pension Commission came up with an idea on the accessibility of mortgage by giving accessible 25 per cent of retirement savings to use as an equity contribution to access mortgage, but there is no doubt that when many people in the middle-income class take a look at their RSA account, many of them are between N4m to N10m, hence what would be the 25 per cent of this? 25 per cent of N4m is N1m, and 25 per cent of N10m is N2.5m. What kind of house would you buy with N2.5m? So, that policy has not had that kind of massive effect.”
According to Gbadeyan, a lot of the middle class cannot afford houses in highbrow areas like Ikoyi, and Victoria Island, among others.
“Let us take a look at Lekki phase 1, if you want to get a decent home in that area, it is now going for N150m to N250m. Looking at the ancillary factors, how many people would qualify for such a mortgage? If you want to give someone N250m for 10 years, principal sum alone, that person would need to pay N20m per annum, by the time you add interest, it would be going for N2m or more monthly. Hence, highbrow is totally out of it except for the upper middle class.
“What the tenure given does is that it lowers the bar for middle-income earners to come in because the monthly repayment would become lower if the tenure is longer. The way forward is to take a look at how mortgage banks are funded. If mortgage banks are still relying on deposits to give mortgage loans, then the cost of funds to them would continue to affect the interest rate of mortgage loans, and the tenure of such loans would be short.”
In the same vein, a mortgage banker, Bukola Jegede, said salaries are proportional to the property that is being acquired.
She said, “You cannot be earning N1.2m and you are aiming for an N50m house, for that range, a house between N3m to N10m is advisable, however at this time properties of that range are no longer feasible, it is really hard for middle-income earners to buy properties at this time.
“Normally for mortgage banks, you do not do more than five years, however, if using the Federal Mortgage Bank of Nigeria, you can do as much as 15 years, but it is always tough getting a loan from FMBN because of the myriads of bottlenecks involved. It is a federal government thing and then becomes a matter of ‘who you know.’ Banks are supposed to get loans from FMBN on behalf of individuals, but they do not want to because of the numerous things they have to do, in the process they prefer to give out their loans, making the interest higher. For an FMBN loan, the interest is 6 per cent, but mortgage loans give an interest of as high as 30 per cent because of the cost of funds, they have to struggle to get those funds.”
Jegede advised middle-income earners to buy landed properties and build themselves to not get strangled with the hard knocks of repayment.
“There is a need to restructure the mortgage system to adequately include middle-income earners, even low-income earners. Hence, a 40 per cent and 60 per cent partnership between the government and the people would make housing affordable for the middle class.”
Population growth and rapid urbanisation
In 2018, the World Bank in its report on the percentage of urban population living in slums put Nigeria’s at 54 per cent, compared to South Africa’s 26 per cent, Cameroon’s 34 per cent, The Gambia’s 27 per cent, Ghana’s 30 per cent, Senegal’s 30 per cent and Zimbabwe’s 34 per cent.
Similarly, the UN-Habitat, in its Habitat Country Programme document for 2023 to 2050, put Nigeria’s current population growth rate at 2.59 per cent, hence based on current trends, it is estimated that Nigeria could attain a population of up to 401 million by 2050, making it the third most populous country in the world.
“In addition to its rapid population growth, Nigeria’s urban population growth rate (4.1 per cent per year), has seen its urban populations growing almost twice as fast as the national growth. Rising from 9.4 per cent in 1950 to 52 per cent in 2020, the share of the population living in cities is expected to rise to 70 per cent by 2050, when it is predicted that the country will be the third most populous country in the world with a total population of over 400 million.”
The NIA President asserted that the population growth and rapid urbanisation had compounded the housing crisis in the country.
She said, “Nigeria’s burgeoning population exerts immense pressure on an already sluggish housing supply, exacerbating the struggle to meet the demand for affordable homes. The rapid urbanisation of many cities intensifies this challenge, soaring housing prices as demand outpaces availability. Additionally, escalating land and development costs significantly contribute to the housing affordability crisis. The high cost of urban land and the expenses associated with development permits, building regulations, and development taxes contribute to the overall burden on prospective middle-class homeowners.”
According to a report by Population Education, rapid urbanisation, currently exceeding 50 per cent of the global population and growing at a 1.5 per cent rate, is straining housing affordability for middle-income earners. Escalating demand for urban housing leads to rising property values, limiting housing options for those with moderate incomes.
As a consequence, this forces many to move to suburban areas, increasing commute times and contributing to environmental concerns. The resultant social and economic disparities underscore the urgent need for comprehensive strategies, including policy reforms and sustainable urban planning, to ensure accessible and inclusive housing solutions for the middle class in evolving urban environments.
